Physiology

Pancreas

The pancreas is made of endocrine and exocrine cells. It is both part of the digestive system as of the endocrine system (picture 1).

The major part of the pancreas is composed of exocrine cells, and it is a serous gland. These cells make and release the pancreatic juice, which is made of pancreatic enzymes that help digest fat, carbohydrates, and protein in the food.

Its endocrine part is composed of the Langerhans Islets. In these islets, alpha and beta cells can be found. The alpha cells are responsible for the production and release of glucagon. The function of the glucagon is to increase the quantity of sugar in the blood when it is low. The beta cells are responsible for the production and release of insulin. Insulin has an opposite function to the glucagon’s function. The body uses insulin to reduce the amount of sugar in the blood when it is high, stimulating, also, the liver, muscles and fatty tissues to absorb the extra circulating sugar.

Picture 1. Pancreas
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Liver

The liver is the largest isolated gland of the body (picture 2). It is composed of the hepatocytes and the Kupffer cells, which are part of the mononuclear phagocytotic system. This organ has a lot of different functions, such as: removing and excreting body wastes as well as drugs and other foreign substances; synthesizing plasma proteins, including those necessary for blood clotting; producing immune factors and removing bacteria, helping the body fight infection; producing bile to aid in digestion; excretion of bilirubin; storing certain vitamins, minerals and sugars; and processing nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract. The last one is that related to the body’s necessities of energy, and it is very connected with insulin and glucagon, both produced by the pancreas. The liver has the ability to repair itself and to regenerate when damaged by toxic substances during an acute exposure. But, when it has a chronic exposure to harmful substances, it shows changes in its functions and also an increase of the connective tissue, losing the capacity to perform all the functions listed above.

 

Picture 2. Liver
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Kidneys

The kidneys are a pair of organs localized in the abdominal cavity (picture 3). Its format will vary according to the species. Each kidney has a cortical and a medullar zone. Its functional part is called nephron. The kidney’s function is to filtrate the blood in order to eliminate prejudicial substances, it also filtrates the glucose founded in the blood. The kidneys regulate the pH of the blood, the osmolality, and the blood pressure. These organs are also involved with the production of hormones, such as calcitrol, erythropoietin and renin.

Picture 3. Kidneys
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